https://doi.org/10.37955/cs.v6i1.221
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Labor equity: Gender perspective
Equidad laboral: Perspectiva de género
Claudia Patricia Mieles Velásquez.
Medical surgeon. Master in Occupational Health and Safety. Occupational Physician, Dr. Oswaldo
Loor Foundation. Guayaquil, Ecuador, c.l.aupata@hotmail.com. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6611-
715.
Abstract
In a world in constant movement, which in recent years has seen
progress in women's struggles for equal treatment, there are still
situations of gender discrimination, lower participation of women in
the labor market, and situations of gender violence in the workplace.
To analyze gender equity in the workplace; Materials and methods: An
exploratory systematic review was carried out, making a pre-selection
of 35 articles that met the inclusion criteria: articles of primary studies,
articles that contain in their abstract key words related to the search,
as exclusion criteria the notes to the author, postgraduate research,
articles older than 10 years, at the end there were 20 articles of an
exploration of the last 10 years.
Resumen
En un mundo en movimiento constante, que se encuentra en
movimiento constante, que en los últimos años se ha observado los
avances en las luchas de las mujeres a tratos de igual, aún existe en el
mundo laboral situaciones de discriminación de género, menor
participación del género femenino en el mercado laboral, situaciones
de violencia de género. Analizar la equidad de género en el ámbito
laboral; Materiales y métodos: Se ejecutó una revisión sistemática
exploratoria, realizándose una preselección de 35 artículos cuales
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cumplían con los criterios de inclusión: artículos de estudios
primarios, artículos que contienen en su resumen palabras clave con
relación a la búsqueda, como criterios de exclusión las notas al autor,
investigaciones de posgrado, artículos de más de 10 años, al finalizar
quedaron 20 artículos de una exploración de los últimos 10 años.
Palabras clave/ Keywords
equidad laboral de género, participación laboral, igualdad de
oportunidades laborales
gender equity in the workplace, labor participation, equal opportunity
in the workplace
Introduction
The gender as the entrenched institutionalization of historically and
socially constructed differentiation between the sexes Aspiazu (2013).
In his studies, he was also able to show that women reveal that they
spend a greater part of their time working, unlike men in all developed
and underdeveloped regions, with the exception of North America and
Australia, where the hours worked were practically the same. In the
research that studied how members perceive the fair distribution of
activities in the household, they consider that the allocation of tasks
should be done in a fair manner that favors the development of
individuals within the family and of the family itself Duque, Ortiz, &
Vargas (2013); Urrutia & Figueroa (2015) In the reproductive age, a
drop in women's employment supply is reflected, because these are
dedicated to the family, female labor participation decreases, even
more as they have more children Urrutia & Figueroa (2015). In
addition, there is low involvement in household chores. Work and
family are two important points for the personal and social
development of populations, balancing work and family with the
obligation to admit with the obligation to cover several roles creates
conflict and stress in individuals (Figueroa, 2020). It is significant to
mention the responsibility of organizations to have policies that
reconcile work and family through the implementation of
organizational practices.
Hochschild considers that traditional gender roles affect women of all
social statuses who work, not just upper middle class (Aspiazu, 2013).
Hochschild tried to show that there is an impasse, that the massive
incorporation of women into the labor market was not accompanied
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by a change in the structure of the labor environment, there is still an
overload of work for women Aspiazu, (2013). At this point it can be
established that despite the advances produced in labor equity issues
there is still a lack of policies that make domestic and work
responsibilities compatible, in addition to the family commitment to
equitably share household chores Argas, Merino, & Perrotini
Hernández, (2015) Urrutia & Figueroa, (2015) Urrutia & Figueroa,
(2015). In recent decades, the entry of women into the labor market
has been increasing, their ascent in the corporate ladder has proven to
be slower Torres, Ortiz, Eduardo, & Restrepo, (2012).
Equality of opportunity became more evident in the middle of the last
century, when the pressure of different social movements to achieve a
more equitable treatment allowed the advance towards the
construction of new thoughts, these social estates began in the 18th
century together with the French revolution (Torres et al., 2012).
Young 2020 addresses the issues of justice and politics of
differences through a debate on the elements that are
considered as key such as the distributive paradigm and the
fairness of the distribution of work, the transfer of power,
decision making and practices that undermine the autonomy
and full development of women's capabilities (Moya, Mafla, &
Luna, 2017).
In the ISO 2600-2010 standards that deals with social responsibility,
it touches on issues of labor equity within society (Gomez, 2019).
In Colombia in recent years there has been equal participation in
senior leadership positions; the rate of women who reach this level is
higher than in other Latin American countries, doubling that of
Mexico and Venezuela. Such variations between countries are due to
different reasons, among them, business activities, levels of
development, cultural characteristics, and access to education in each
country (Torres et al., 2012).
The conditions of inequity are observed in lower incomes for women
and fewer opportunities to ascend to hierarchical organizational
positions despite having high levels of professionalization. (Stevenson,
2003; Torres et al., 2012), discrimination of women in the workplace
is not something new it is an old problem, despite the fact that the
number of women entering the workforce has been increasing
dramatically in recent decades. The recommendations of equity and
fairness of social comparison processes of organizations that influence
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satisfaction and productivity. From an occupational health point of
view it explains the interaction between the person and the work and
whose exposure can have positive and negative impact Barros-
Bastidas & Gebera, (2020), Noroña & González, (2020).
The socio-economic and political conditions in which globalization is
introduced today are characterized by a high degree of uncertainty, low
level of predictability, complex environments, floating economies, and
interdependence (Godoy & Mladinic, 2009).
"The growing female labor force in Mexico, with almost a third
of all women now working outside the home, has brought more
jobs, but at a very high social cost" (Stevenson, 2003). Despite
all this, there is still another point, which is gender segregation,
women are concentrated in those occupations conceived as
feminized jobs.
For women, it not only represents opportunities for exchanges, but
also becomes an exercise in female empowerment, since in this way
they gain greater control over different key aspects of their lives
Stevenson (2003). In this way, women renegotiate relationships for
participation and exercise relevant roles in the different spheres of
work, both public and private, which translates into opportunities for
a fairer and more democratic social distribution of power (Stevenson,
2003).
Gender equity is the recognition of the diversity of the individual, in
order to promote conditions of greater justice and equal opportunities,
equity is to speak of a complete diversity in the individuals hired
without discrimination (Vargas et al., 2015).
Thus, the general objective of this study is to analyze gender equity in
the labor field in Latin America.
Materials and Methods
The present research was based on the criteria of the exploratory
systematic review methodology (Manchado et al., 2009) of the
publications that have been carried out on gender labor equity, and
gender equity and labor participation, labor discrimination by gender.
A search was carried out through academic Google, Lilacs; Redalyc, for
which the key words used to search for research on the topic were:
gender labor equity, labor equity and labor participation.
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This research was not limited to geographical location ; from this
exploratory inquiry 65,310 articles were found on the topic chosen to
perform the article , making a pre-selection of 35 articles based on a
quick reading of title and abstract, which met the inclusion criteria:
articles of primary studies, articles that contain in their abstract
keywords related to the search, as exclusion criteria (Carrizo & Moller,
2018), notes to the author, postgraduate research, articles older than
10 years, among the inclusion criteria were articles from the last 10
years, containing the keywords, at the end were left 20 articles of an
exploration of the last 10 years.
A data collection protocol was included for the information search,
with information on the author and year of publication, sample size,
results found (Guirao-goris, Vida, & Mindfulness, 2014).
The variables chosen were: gender equity in the workplace, labor
participation, and dual presence.
(Weil, 1995) Ethical requirements in documentary research were
taken into account, authors' rights were protected, the document was
properly cited according to APA standards.
Results
Table 1. Existing normative agreements on gender equity
Regulatory agreements
Universal Declaration of Human
Rights 1948
Convention and
recommendations on combating
discrimination in education
Forward-looking strategies for
the advancement of women to the
year 2000
united nations conference on
environment and development
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World Summit on Social Development
International Conference on Population
and Development
4th World Conference on Women
united nations conference on
human settlements
Source: Data obtained from
exploratory systematic review
Table 2. Spaces granted to gender equity established in
chronological order.
Year
Spaces
1945
UN Charter
1948
Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN
1948
Seneca Falls Statement
1952
Convention on the Political Rights of Women UN
1967
UN Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination
against Women
1975
First world conference on women
1975
World Women's Conference in Mexico
1979
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination
1980
Second World Women's Conference
1985
Third world conference on women, equality,
development and peace
1993
World Conference on Human Rights
1994
Inter-American Convention on the Prevention,
Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against
Women
1994
International Conference on Population and
Development
1995
IV World Conference on Women
2000
Women in the Year 2000: Gender Equality,
Development and Peace in the 21st Century
2000
Millennium Summit: Millennium Declaration
2001
World Conference against Racism, Racial
Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance
and Related Intolerance
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2002
Meeting of women leaders and environment
2005
Bling Conference
Source: Data obtained from exploratory systematic
review
Prepared by: Author of the systematic review
(Aspiazu, 2013; Bedoya, Martín, & Romero, 2014; Figueroa, 2020;
Godoy & Mladinic, 2009; Stevenson, 2003; Torres et al., 2012; Vargas
et al., 2015). These studies agreed that there is female concentration in
certain branches of production, with low quality jobs, lack of social
protection, low income, gender inequality in the labor market, and in
income distribution, as well as that women are segregated in those
occupations that present greater instability and are considered female
careers.
(Torres et al., 2012) This study considered that there are still barriers
that prevent women from accessing leadership positions, this effect
known as glass ceiling, ("Gender equity: utopia or reality?," 2013;
Moya et al., 2017; Stevenson, 2003) women receive inferior treatment
in terms of the possibilities of obtaining jobs in better conditions as
well as it happens in populations discriminated by sexual orientation,
religion, or race (Torres et al., 2012). This research found that in the
500 largest companies in the world, only 1% of them are preceded by
women, in North American companies women have better
remuneration in their jobs, but only 6% of the workforce is female and
1% of the companies are preceded by women; as well as determined
according to the results that in Europe the top management positions
are occupied by women in 11%, and come to precede companies 4% of
these women. In 2007 in the United States the corporate boards had
14.8% of women, a similar percentage with 13.7% in Canada, in France
and Spain did not exceed 8%.
The study on gender equity as part of social responsibility found that
in 2010 on average salary difference between men and women was at
60% with some variations depending on the educational level
achieved, 69% of a man's salary; furthermore this research agreed with
Meentzen (Gomez, 2019). According to his criteria, there should be a
strategic reorganization that integrates both women and men. In Latin
America (Bedoya et al., 2014). (Bedoya et al., 2014), it is still
considered that care work is associated with female roles, such as
medical careers where the percentage of female students is higher than
the percentage of male students. (Romero, 2008) this scientific
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exploration found that in the last 30 years, the number of women in
higher education has tripled, although an increase of women in careers
considered as masculine has been observed, this did not occur with
careers classified as feminine.
Figueroa, (2020) y von Feigenblatt, O. F. (2020). "Inserción laboral y
salud mental: una reflexión desde la psicología del trabajo," 2013)
coincide with those previously mentioned in previously analyzed
articles, that the participation of women does not determine that there
is gender equality in the labor sectors, since labor discrimination
persists, labor segmentation, and several difficulties that are
detrimental to the opportunities to occupy more important positions
and higher salaries (Vargas et al., 2015). The participation of women
in companies listed on the stock exchange barely reaches 7.2% and
only 3.5% manage to position themselves as independent directors
(González et al., 2015), This study conducted by health professionals
revealed that there is little presence of women in management
positions, that they perceive that they must make greater efforts and
that they obtain less rewards (Duque et al., 2013), this study
determined that there is a commitment to promote gender equality
and women's autonomy in all areas of life.
Rodriguez (2010) this research investigation determined that
domestic work influences the quantity and quality of paid work, as well
as that unemployment and underemployment rates are higher in
women than in men (Gomez, 2019), according to the study of gender
equity in 2012, the organization for economic cooperation and
development concluded that in the last 50 years salaries were 16%
lower than those of men, in Mexico women occupied 29% of informal
jobs (Duque et al... 2013), this research showed that between 2003 and
2005 61% of women in the Colombian labor market did so informally
(Godoy & Gladenic, 2013), 2013), this research showed that between
2003 and 2005, 61% of women in the Colombian labor market worked
informally (Godoy & Mladinic, 2009; Urrutia & Figueroa, 2015).The
aforementioned studies indicate in their results that women move
away from working life to devote themselves to housework, and that
the more children the household has, the fewer opportunities there are
to enter full-time jobs.
Romero (2008) this study also found that women with higher
education accept low-paid jobs, hourly or part-time jobs, the latter in
order to be able to reconcile household chores with work.
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(González et al., 2015). This study, which focused on health
professionals, found that women felt less valued than men, in addition
to the fact that there are still specialties in the health field that are
considered feminized careers. When patients were consulted on the
quality of care, it was found that patients consider that women provide
longer care, with more information and that they are involved in
emotional aspects.
The study on the double working day ("Productivity, work and health,
the psychosocial perspective," 2007), investigated that by 1906 in
France women constituted 40% of the female labor force, segregated
in companies, government offices, and insurance companies. It also
found that 11% of women had been victims of gender-based violence at
some point in their working lives, and 22% performed household
chores alone, these women felt that they should pay more attention to
their physical, psychological, and social well-being, have leisure
spaces, and recreational activities.
Women and business leadership this article revealed that in Colombia
40% of the labor force comes from the female gender, when talking
about the types of leadership this research concluded that it is not
about copying the male roles but to lead from the characteristics
related to the sex of biological beings and gender. It also determined
that women have characteristics linked to emotional intelligence,
while men have characteristics linked to rational intelligence, that
women have leadership based on interpersonal relationships, that they
use verbal strategies to resolve conflicts, while men are more rational,
women are more democratic, participative, men are more competitive,
leadership of command, control, power and competition.
Discrimination. This research revealed that for the employer's
imaginary, the female leadership style generates a contrary sensation,
since it is believed to be motivated by emotions, in addition to the fact
that women are considered to have less productive periods due to
maternity leave, which prevents them from developing in managerial
positions.
Vargas et al. (2015) this study resolved that "the business world is a
complex world, and neither the male work model nor the female work
model could provide a balanced organization without the complement
of the other". In addition this study revealed in Latin America for 2016
4.2% of companies had at least one female executive director while
8.5% of board members were women, which shows that Latin America
is living an apparently labor equitable society, this study also indicated
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that according to data revealed by the United Nations Organization, at
the end of 2017 17. 3% of managerial positions are held by women, and
in developed country markets this index rises to 20, 4%. The countries
with the highest percentage of women in management positions are
Norway with 47%, France with 34%, and Switzerland with 34.1% in
these last three countries more than 90% of the companies had at least
one woman on the board. In Europe as a whole, 25% of management
positions were held by women, while in the United States it was 20%.
However, the article on the challenges of gender equity in higher
education in Mexico and the insertion of women in the labor market
reveals that 66% of the illiterate population in the world are women,
and that in sub-Saharan Africa for every 100 men enrolled in higher
education only 33 are women, and that in developed countries for
every 100 men in the labor market there are 50 women working. These
women who participated in the study considered that there are
discriminatory practices in professional promotions and
appointments, that there are tensions derived from the dual family and
professional role, interruptions in the professional career due to
cultural stereotypes, a male cultural alienation and a continuous
resistance to women occupying management positions, and that in the
health field women tend to have several studies in order to access
relevant positions Rodriguez & Caminotti (2010).
Vargas et al., (2015) this study established that due to the importance
of establishing a reconciliation between family and work, companies
implement organizational policies that assume social responsibility
safeguarding the quality of life of workers, this article found that in
Chile there is a national platform called Gender Parity Initiative, which
is carried out by authorities belonging to the government and
representatives of the private sector that aim to bring more women
into the economy and put an end to gender inequalities in both the
public and private sectors. It also determined that not implementing
labor measures specifically in charge of family and work reconciliation
issues, are often detrimental to the quality of life of workers, revealing
themselves in desires of abandonment when they interfere with the
compatibility to perform family work Stevenson, (2003). This article
determined that the assignment of attributes turns gender into a basic
criterion for social organization in which there is an unequal
distribution of roles and responsibilities, which also fosters a
hierarchization of powers in which men are the dominant agents,
making these spheres more valued, remunerated and of higher order.
This research also found that women perceive the work environment
is different for them, because they must face obstacles on the way to
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reach higher positions in organizations, which is called glass ceiling,
which is perceived as a transparent barrier that prevents them from
ascending, for this study the barriers that make up the glass ceiling are
subjective, fueled by gender stereotypes.
Conclusions
Although the issue of labor equity has been addressed over the years,
there is still a lack of policies to help create jobs that reconcile work
and family, and many women decide to work part-time, with lower
salaries, or do work that can be performed from home. Despite the
progress that has been made in terms of access to education, there is
still much work to be done to modify careers that are socially conceived
as masculine, as well as access to higher hierarchical jobs that are not
determined by gender. Although in recent years women have had
greater access to the labor market, there is still a need to work on
discrimination in access to hierarchical positions. Female
participation in the labor market has increased in recent years,
although it is still far from achieving equity. Women must have higher
education levels in balance with men's education levels to access
similar or the same positions, as well as they must toughen their
character to obtain leading jobs in areas considered as exclusive work
areas for men.
There are very few policies implemented on the reconciliation of work
and family, despite the fact that the ISO 2600 2010 standard has
established this issue. The progress of female inclusion in recent years
has been increasing significantly in contrast to later years. The biggest
existing problems for this inclusion, and even lower female labor
participation are the double presence, the lack of male collaboration in
household care tasks, in addition to the lack of work on masculinities,
and the lack of work on breaking paradigmatic concepts of gender
roles pre-established for decades that affect the female presence in the
labor market.
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