https://doi.org/10.37955/cs.v6i3.27775
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Forensic techniques in blood
macules: an updated review
Técnicas criminalÃsticas en máculas de sangre: una
revisión actualizada
Patricia Alexandra Padilla Ortiz
Degree in Health Sciences in Clinical and Histopathological Laboratory. Diploma in Clinical
Hematology, Postgraduate, Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo. papadilla.fslc@unach.edu.ec,
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7603-1119
Verónica Paulina Cáceres Manzano
Master in Criminalistics. Professor at the National University of Chimborazo, Faculty of
Health Sciences, Clinical and Histopathological Laboratory. vcaceres@unach.edu.ec,
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5710-5661
ABSTRACT
Bloodstain forensic techniques rely on the ability to examine a crime scene
and collect physical evidence to enable analysis. Often, investigators use
ultraviolet and infrared lights to detect subtle bloodstains that are not visible
to the naked eye. Once identified, these bloodstains are collected for further
analysis. Bloodstain analysis involves comparing the patterns of the
bloodstain to other patterns at the crime scene. Thus, an updated systematic
review of techniques and methods employed in the analysis of blood macules
at crime scenes was conducted. Ten studies were identified between 2020 and
2022, corresponding to publications indexed in the Scopus and Scielo
databases and master's theses. It is concluded that the application of different
methods related to science such as mathematics, physics, electrochemistry is
the proposed way to improve criminalistic techniques.
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RESUMEN
Las técnicas criminalÃsticas en máculas de sangre se basan en la habilidad
para examinar una escena del crimen y recopilar evidencia fÃsica que permita
el análisis. A menudo, los investigadores usan luces ultravioletas e infrarrojas
para detectar manchas sutiles de sangre que no son visibles a simple vista.
Una vez identificadas, estas máculas de sangre se recolectan para su análisis
posterior, el análisis de la mácula de sangre involucra la comparación de los
patrones de la mácula con otros patrones de la escena del crimen. Es asÃ, que
se llevó a cabo una revisión sistemática actualizada sobre técnicas y métodos
empleados en el análisis de máculas de sangre en escenas del crimen. Se
identificaron 10 estudios entre el 2020 y 2022, que corresponden a
publicaciones indexadas las bases de datos Scopus, Scielo y tesis de maestrÃa.
Se concluye que la aplicación de diferentes métodos afines a la ciencia como
matemáticas, fÃsica, electroquÃmica es el camino que se propone con el fin de
perfeccionar las técnicas criminalÃsticas.
Keywords / Palabras clave
Forensic techniques, blood stains, forensics, forensic investigation.
Técnicas criminalÃsticas, máculas de sangre, forense, investigación forense.
Introduction
Criminalistic techniques are a set of methods and procedures used in
criminal investigation to collect, evaluate and process evidence
obtained at the scene of a crime. These techniques seek to establish the
relationship between the facts and the identification of the
perpetrators. Criminalistic techniques encompass a wide variety of
skills and knowledge related to criminal investigation. These include
evidence collection, crime scene analysis, fingerprint and fingerprint
identification, computer forensics analysis, ballistics analysis, DNA
examination, and blood examination(MartÃn Nuñez, 2016).
In the same vein, practitioners can use these techniques to collect
evidence, establish chain of custody and present evidence in court.
Advances in technology have changed the focus of forensic techniques.
For example, fingerprint identification, once done manually, is now
done through facial recognition technology. Computer forensics has
also improved crime scene analysis and evidence collection. As
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technology advances, professionals must keep up with the latest
developments. This helps ensure that professionals are prepared to
handle a wide variety of situations, from low-profile crimes to murders
and rapes(Sriraman, 2021; Weber & Lednev, 2020)
Along the same lines, blood identification has been one of the most
important forensic techniques, since it makes it possible to link the
incident to a specific person. This technique is based on the analysis of
the characteristics of the blood, such as its color, chemical composition
and type, which are unique to each person. This makes it possible to
identify the origin of the blood and establish a connection between the
incident and the alleged perpetrator(Moreno Lopera, 2016; Quispe &
Flores, 2014).
In addition, technology has contributed to improved evidence
collection techniques, through the use of tools for detecting
fingerprints, fingerprints, DNA, greenhouse gases, and other crime-
related materials(Lee et al., 2020; Sharma & Kumar, 2018). This has
enabled investigators to collect more accurate evidence and present it
in a court hearing. Moreover, data analysis systems have been
developed that allow investigators to collect and analyze information
quickly and accurately(Moreno Hernández, 2020). Thus, it has been
possible to improve the investigative process as investigators are able
to identify patterns of behavior, track the movement of suspects and
generate criminal profiles. In general, criminalistic techniques have
advanced significantly in recent years. Under this perspective, in this
article, we present the methods and techniques employed in cases and
studies conducted in the period 2018-2022 globally through an
updated review of relevant documentation.
Materials and Methods
This research was conducted under a search strategy that consisted of
the selection of two relevant bibliographic databases; Elsevier's Scopus
and Scielo, which group documents from peer-reviewed journals.
Google Scholar was also used as a specialized search engine for
doctoral theses and master's theses, in order to include any document
relevant to the research. The inclusion criteria for this review were
based on the points detailed below.
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• Review and original articles on the subject that appear in a
journal indexed in Scopus or Scielo published from 2020 to
2022, in Spanish or English.
• Master's and doctoral theses in Spanish and English published
between 2020-2022.
• Open access documents.
Twenty documents were found with the inclusion characteristics, then
a reading of the summary of each document was made to select the
most appropriate for the research, so that 10 final documents were
selected, the search terms and filters used are specified in Table 1.
Table 1. Database and search terms
Database'
Search'terms'
Filters'
Total'
results'
Selected'
Scopus'
"techniques+
bloodstains"+
AND+
"forensic+blood+
stains"+OR+
"Blood+and+
crime".+
Open+Access+
2020-2022+
95+
7+
Scielo'
"techniques+
bloodstains"+
AND+
"forensic+blood+
stains"+OR+
"Blood+and+
crime".+
Open+Access+
2020-2022+
1+
2+
Academic'
Google'
"techniques+
bloodstains+
thesis"+AND+
"forensic+blood+
macules"+OR+
"Blood+and+
crime".+
2020-2022+
57+
1+
!"#$%&'()#*+"$,-(./..(
Results
The right to life of the unborn child is a controversial issue, which
currently generates social, legal and legislative debates between those
who defend the right to life of the conceived and those who approve
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and support the practice of abortion. For this reason, this document
reviews the different positions adopted by various authors and the
Cosmovision of Human Rights organizations.
The Inter-American Court of Human Rights, on several occasions in
its rulings, has condemned the violation of the rights of the unborn, as
well as highlighted the actions taken by governments in pursuit of the
protection of the unborn. Thus, in Advisory Opinion OC/17-2002, on
the Juridical Condition and Human Rights of Children, this body
states that rights are also applicable to the unborn, placing the
principle of the best interest of the child first.
In other words, the development and exercise of the rights of the
nasciturus must be considered as guiding criteria to elaborate norms
that contain orders related to the life of minors. The best interest of the
child will always be to live, therefore, for the States to decide on the
right to life from conception becomes a sensitive issue, which may
violate supranational agreements on Human Rights. From this angle,
the Latin American Center for Human Rights (2011) proposes that,
when making a decision on the right to life from conception, States
should "recommend both punitive measures for any act aimed at
destroying the life of the unborn and preventive measures".
As stated in art. 1.2 of the American Convention on Human Rights,
every human being is a person, consequently, the nature of the unborn
must be recognized as a person or human being, which makes him/her
a subject of rights in the Inter-American System. There is no doubt
then, that the States parties to the Human Rights agreements must
recognize the right to life of every person from the moment of
conception, according to a good faith interpretation of the terms
contained in the signed and ratified treaties.
Indeed, Sanchez, and Taype (2018), argues that the nasciturus is not a
subject of law at least until birth, then it must be understood that the
rights for the conceived are not null, but are subject to the resolutory
condition of birth, in other words, these rights are in a passive state,
until they can be activated once the individual is born. Therefore,
following this premise, it can be affirmed that every human being is a
person, therefore, he/she is a holder of human rights in any of the
stages of his/her integral life.
With regard to Ecuador, the right to life is constitutionally protected
from conception. Article 45 of the Constitution states that "the State
shall recognize and guarantee life, including care and protection from
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conception". Therefore, the constitutional mandate considers that the
unborn is a human life, regardless of its stage of development.
It so happens that the Ecuadorian Constitution determines the
protection of the unborn child from conception, without giving rise to
any interpretation, unlike other Constitutions, which simply state that
the right to life is inviolable. In this sense, countries such as Canada,
India, the United States and Uruguay, do not recognize the unborn
child as a subject of the right to life, which has allowed the creation of
public policies that allow the undue manipulation of the conceived, for
example, the legalization of abortion.
For Cornejo (2013), this happens because international human rights
conventions do not expressly defend the human life of the unborn, but
this is deduced from some of the texts enunciated by human rights
organizations, which gives rise to an erroneous interpretation that
ends up violating the right to life.
In this sense, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2011),
points out that "the lack of recognition of juridical personality harms
human dignity, since it absolutely denies their status as subjects of
rights and makes the individual vulnerable to the non-observance of
their rights by the State or by private individuals". Similarly, he argues
that denying the legal existence of the nasciturus is a clear violation of
the right to life, "although children and other legally incapable persons
lack the capacity to fully exercise their rights (for example, the right to
vote or property rights), they are fully entitled to inalienable and
inherent rights of the human person" (Muñoz, 2020). (Muñoz, 2020).
And precisely, the Ecuadorian Civil Code (CCE) exposes a similar
premise, stating in Art. 63 that "The rights that would correspond to
the creature that is in the mother's womb, if it had been born and lived,
will be suspended until the birth takes place. And if the birth
constitutes a principle of existence, the newborn shall enter into the
enjoyment of said rights, as if it had existed at the time they
corresponded to it."
On the other hand, art. 61 of the CCE declares the protection of the life
of the unborn, stating that "the law protects the life of the unborn.
Consequently, the judge will take, at the request of any person or ex
officio, all the measures that seem appropriate to protect the existence
of the unborn". Then, the unborn is a subject of law by its legal nature,
which emanates from the protection of life, from the moment of
conception until birth. (Galvis, 2019)
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Therefore, even if the unborn child does not have civil capacity, this
should not be an impediment for it to enjoy its human rights, or to be
recognized as a person from the embryonic and fetal stages. So, while
fundamental rights are qualified as general principles to achieve legal
effectiveness, on the other hand, the human being is being denied the
first moments of his life, this incongruence ends up denying the
nasciturus his status as a person. This dichotomy results in the
difficulty of determining whether the unborn child really has the same
rights as the mother, whether these are superior to the will of the
mother, or on the contrary, whether its rights are subordinated to the
mother's decision.
In view of the above, Calvo (2004) considers that the right to life is
"among human rights, the one that has been subject to the most
restrictive interpretation, giving way to other rights of lower rank and
even to certain legitimate desires that do not deserve the qualification
of rights, such as those of the woman to her own body (which is placed
before the right to life of the child and thus justifies abortion). In this
way, an inversion of values is produced, in which secondary rights are
placed before the principal and fundamental right to life".
This conception is a relevant social derivation that responds to the
vindication of reproductive freedom and the controversial concept of
a woman's freedom to decide over her own body, which is used to
justify induced abortion. According to Vial and Rodriguez (2009), this
notion of reproductive freedom has been widely accepted by important
jurists, who consider that it is a woman's right to choose whether to
continue or terminate the pregnancy, putting her needs and desires
first.
In this notion of reproductive freedom, one aspect of interest is to
consider the mental health of the woman who, not being able to choose
and decide whether or not to terminate the pregnancy, would trigger
psychic-emotional imbalances or imbalances, making the unwanted
pregnancy a hopeless environment and a risk factor for psychological
disorders.
Consequently, abortion is a prevailing factor in the psychic affectation
of women. Aznar and Cerdá (2014) propose to give their criteria based
on the evaluations of the reviews of different articles on this subject,
where they conclude that women with induced abortions have between
1.80 and 7.07 higher probability of presenting mental problems,
including mentioning that mental health disorders attributable to
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abortion represent between 1.5% and 5.5% of the total mental
disorders of women.
In relation to abortion, the deviation of the Law is remarkable, because
when this freedom is granted to the woman, the unborn child, who is
a person, ceases to be a subject of the Law, loses its transcendence, and
becomes an object of the rights of others and of the legal business. To
avoid this transgression, the State has the duty to refrain from
interrupting the process of natural gestation, establishing a legal
system that allows to effectively defend life from conception. (Galvis,
2019).
In other words, by considering the life of the unborn child as a legal
good, it is subject to the will of the parents, as legitimate holders of that
legal good, therefore they have the right to freely dispose of the life of
the unborn child, which opens the possibility of performing an
abortion, as a right of the parents to not have an unwanted child.
(Chávez, 2015).
From this point of view, in countries where abortion has been
legalized, the norm, the protection of human rights and their
guarantees, are only valid for human beings when they are recognized
as subjects of rights, that is, after birth, but are not applicable to the
unborn, which results in a paradox, since it is precisely human beings
in their embryonic and fetal stage that are weaker, and therefore
require greater protection and legal protection of all kinds.
Therefore, it is logical that the recognition and protection of human
rights cannot be subordinated to the period in which man is born, since
the right to life is the main and most fundamental of rights, without
which the others would have no reason to exist, which is why it is
important to demand respect for life, from its beginning until its
natural extinction.
For man, life is a right that must be protected, without distinction
between the being who has already been born and the one who is about
to be born, and precisely from this precept derives the illegitimacy of
abortion. It cannot be ignored that the right to life is the most essential
of all human rights, since it is the basis of humanity, nor can it be
denied that the human being begins to be such from conception,
therefore, the unborn child is invested with human dignity, which
gives him/her rights that are enforceable against third parties.
(Iglesias, 2016).
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States cannot deny the personhood of the unborn, therefore, their right
to life must be constitutionally protected from conception. In this
sense, Positive law must recognize the unborn as a subject of rights,
leaving aside controversial criteria contrary to what is stated in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Garzón, 2017).
As Paulson (2017) states, intentional abortion is a more serious form
of execution than the death penalty, since to terminate a pregnancy in
order to get rid of the product is to deny the unborn child its legal
personality, to deprive it of its right to life and to go against the
mandates contained in the declarations of human rights.
Therefore, legalizing abortion is tantamount to denying the right to life
of a particular group of persons, in this case unborn children, which
constitutes discrimination on the basis of age or birth prohibited by
the American Convention in Article 1.1, the Additional Protocol to the
American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic,
Social and Cultural Rights (Article 3), the Convention on the Rights of
the Child in its Preamble and Article 2(1), and the Declaration of the
Rights of the Child.
Thus, in several countries, the legislation that sustains laws
prohibiting abortion bases its criteria on the right to life of the unborn
child, without considering the complementary interpretation that
should be made of the rights of other women.
For example, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights establish that life
is an inherent right of the human person, including the unborn child,
while international treaties on women's human rights, such as the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women, determine that all discrimination in areas such as health,
family relations and family planning must be eradicated.
In this sense, the arguments that defend prenatal life under the
premise that it is protected by international human rights treaties
generate an even greater controversy, since they consider the rights of
the unborn child, but leave aside the rights of women as a whole, which
goes against the principle of equality and non-discrimination.
Therefore, it is not by chance that anti-abortionists defend the theory
that the embryo or fetus is a human life, therefore, they prioritize the
right to be born of the conceived, before the woman's right to decide
freely about her body and maternity. In this context, the different pro-
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life groups demand the tightening of laws and oppose the legalization
of abortion, regardless of the reason for which the woman decides to
terminate the pregnancy.
Under this scheme, Ugarte (2006) argues that abortion is equivalent
to homicide, since it violates the right to life of the fetus. According to
Pérez (2019), this position is based on the position of the Catholic
Church, for which, interrupting pregnancy is an attempt against
human life, therefore, it cannot be admitted under any circumstances
and must be punished by law.
The Catholic Church bases its fundamental criterion on the
anthropological nature of man, in the opinion of Jara (2013) "the
natural moral law evidences and prescribes the purposes, rights and
duties based on the bodily and spiritual nature of human persons. The
Creator is the only one who can direct and regulate their life and acts
and, more specifically, to use and dispose of one's own body".
Consequently, for Catholicism, life is sacred and only God determines
the beginning and end of it, therefore, under no circumstances, no
human being can claim the right to end the life of an innocent human
being.
From this perspective, Cornejo (2018) argues that the legal
criminalization of abortion, incorporates ideological or moral reasons
to prohibit the termination of pregnancy, for example, there is the
conviction that the nasciturus is a person with equal dignity to the
mother, and to attempt against his life, not only violates a superior
right, but, it is done in a conscious and voluntary way.
Morality is an intrinsic process of the subject constructed in such a way
that different subjective, environmental and cultural elements are
incorporated, so that the choice of abortion involves a confrontation of
the being himself between what he wishes and what he should do.
Luigi Ferrajoli quoted by GarcÃa (2006) in his article Questions of life
and death mentions "the principle of utility and that of separation
between law and morality that does not end in an integration of these
complex systems but rather in an opposition between moral values and
the protective function of criminal law" (p.184). And in the morality
play, the clandestinity of abortion is absorbed in the morality of the
professional who practices it and we leave the gap open in
concomitance of the participants.
Another argument sustained by abortion's detractors is the
consideration of the fetus and embryo as a human being. This thesis
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seems logical, so much so that several legislations accept it as a basis
for the criminalization of abortion. As GarcÃa (2017) mentions, "the
personality of the fetus nullifies any justification of abortion" (p.189),
in other words, from this position, abortion could not be justified
under any circumstances, even if the woman's life is in danger or she
has been sexually violated.
From the perspective of the Declaration of Human Rights, the unborn
child is considered a person from conception, therefore, it is a subject
of rights, interests and claims, so it is not only a matter of exalting a
life, but also of protecting its legitimate rights. Therefore, when it
comes to affirming or denying the legal existence of the unborn child,
the discussion becomes very complex.
Consequently, by giving the unborn child the same value as the
mother, interrupting a pregnancy is a decision that attempts against a
life, therefore, abortion would be on the same level as homicide, which
is why it is penalized by several legislations. But, from a theoretical
point of view, affirming that the embryo and the fetus are a person,
shakes the arguments of those who are in favor of abortion, so they are
forced to use medical knowledge in order to counteract this statement,
often used as an argument difficult to refute.
Other arguments used in defense of abortion are measured by the
freedom of the woman, her state of necessity, the preservation of the
life or health of the mother, in spite of this, these affirmations lose
force when the rights of the mother are contrasted with those of the
unborn child.
In the opinion of Finnis (2016), the nasciturus is a weak being that
must be protected by the State against the aggressions of others, since,
just as it cannot be admitted that the life of an innocent person is
sacrificed to save another, neither should it be permissible to
deliberately end the life of the fetus to save the life of the mother or at
the mother's wish.
Those who are against abortion state that because of its status as a
person, the unborn child deserves legal protection and protection even
before birth; however, this is not a sufficient premise for it to be
considered as a unique person. In fact, those who are in favor, defend
that the fetus is not yet a human person in the full sense, therefore, it
cannot be considered as a subject of law or superimpose this on the
rights of the mother.(Bellieni, 2019)
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It should be noted that the defenders of abortion consider that it is a
woman's right, therefore, its recognition guarantees compliance with
human rights treaties and agreements. In this way, abortion is justified
with arguments that defend women's freedom, which range from "the
supposed property of women over the fruit of their sexual relations, to
the atavistic condition of subjugation, which alone would legitimize
any abortion. In addition, certain key criteria are cited from other
documents that, although not selected for the review, provide data or
concepts that support the results of the chosen research.
Table 2. Selected and reviewed documents
N.(
Title(
(
Reference(
1(
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5:8$2$&3(5B2A5:A(3&C5%&,(8"$(*+&(3&*&%*5":("8(
94""3,*25:,(":(32$6(829$5%,(92,&3(":(*+&5$(
$&,"4#*5":D(
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94""3,*25:(72**&$:(2:24;,5,(15*+5:(*+&(GH(
<E"B&(&*(24D-(./..?(
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)%%#$2%;(2:3($&7$"3#%59545*;("8(%":%4#,5":,(
9;(8"$&:,5%(94""3,*25:(72**&$:(2:24;,*,(
<E5%645:(&*(24D-(./.I?D(
5(
J3&:*585%2*5":("8(*+&("$5A5:(2$&2("8(+&B2*5%(
,7"*,(":(2(%$5B&(,%&:&'(*+&"$&*5%24(2:24;,5,D(
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*&2%+5:A(%+&B5,*$;(5:(8"$&:,5%(+&B2*"4"A;D(
<@5A#&$"2(Q2$*R:&N(
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7(
S%%#4*(94""3,*25:,(3&*&%*5":(5:(%$5B&(,%&:&(
2:24;,5,(
<J:324&%5"LTU,7&3&,(
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8(
@"$&:,5%(94""3(,*25:(2A5:A(#,5:A($&C&$,&(
*$2:,%$57*5":($&24L*5B&(PTV(
<Q2:2,2*5&:65W(>(
X5B:#24-(./.I?(
9(
Y4""3,*25:(72**&$:(2:24;,5,(2,(,%5&:*585%(
&C53&:%&(5:(*+&(W#35%524(7$"%&,,D(!*2*&("8(*+&(
B2**&$(5:(,725:(2:3(4&A&(8&$&:32(7$"7",24D(
<Q"$&:"-(./..?(
10(
@"$&:,5%(&4&%*$"%+&B5,*$;'(*5B&(,5:%&(
3&7",5*5":(<0!Z?(&,*5B2*5":("8(3&A$235:A(
94""3,*25:,(#,5:A(3588&$&:*524(7#4,&(
C"4*2BB&*$;(
<05&,,&:-(./.I?(
!"#$%&'()#*+"$,-(./..(
(
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="#( >( !*&$:( <./..?3&C&4"7&3( *+&5$( $&,&2$%+( ":( 94""3,*25:( 2:24;,5,-(
&B7+2,5N5:A(*+2*(8"$("C&$(2(+#:3$&3(;&2$,-(94""3,*25:(2:24;,5,(+2,(9&&:(
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31
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eISSN: 2600-5743
Centro Sur Vol. 7 No. 2 - April - June
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32
Received June 19, 2022 / Approved December, 22 2022 Pages: 18-39
eISSN: 2600-5743
Centro Sur Vol. 7 No. 2 - April - June
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eISSN: 2600-5743
Centro Sur Vol. 7 No. 2 - April - June
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34
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eISSN: 2600-5743
Centro Sur Vol. 7 No. 2 - April - June
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35
Received June 19, 2022 / Approved December, 22 2022 Pages: 18-39
eISSN: 2600-5743
Centro Sur Vol. 7 No. 2 - April - June
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Conclusions
The initial purpose of this research was to identify new techniques and
methods of blood macule analysis for forensic purposes present in
current research, it is unlikely that all documents have been correctly
processed. Although the systematic search supported by inclusion and
exclusion parameters allows for a current overview of the subject, it is
necessary to clarify that there may be more information that has not
been explored in this study.
All the authors investigated agree on the importance of the study of
blood macule patterns for criminalistic investigation and that there are
inconsistencies in the analyses and studies carried out, which implies
that it is not an entirely reliable technique. On the other hand, using
scientific methods that are based on physical laws, calculation
software, mathematics, electrochemical methods and statistical
analysis leads to the development of new forms of blood macule
analysis that, in addition to their reliability, have a minimum margin
of error and can be effective in the analysis of a crime scene.
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*+&5$( $&,"4#*5":D( 1.2#/3%&) 4&%#/&#) 5/-#2/'-%./'(-( 006-( IIII.kD(
36
Received June 19, 2022 / Approved December, 22 2022 Pages: 18-39
eISSN: 2600-5743
Centro Sur Vol. 7 No. 2 - April - June
+**7,'nn3"5D"$AnI/DI/IhnoD@SV!TJJX0D./.IDIIII.kD(
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37
Received June 19, 2022 / Approved December, 22 2022 Pages: 18-39
eISSN: 2600-5743
Centro Sur Vol. 7 No. 2 - April - June
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